2 MWp Parking-Lot Solar Carport TCO (AU)

Decision. A 2 MWp DC parking-lot solar carport at the modelled Sydney-band baseline (capex AUD 1,500,000; 2,800,000 kWh Year-1 generation; blended export tariff AUD 0.075/kWh Year-1; O&M AUD 18,000/yr Year-1; inverter reserve AUD 80,000 lump sum at Year 12; horizon 25 yr; discount rate 6.00%/yr real) returns, from the scenario TCO model: NPV = AUD 1,125,192; simple payback = 7.58 years; discounted payback = 10.31 years; IRR = 12.75%; LCOE = AUD 0.0531/kWh (undiscounted PV of costs divided by undiscounted lifetime kWh, identical time basis to benefits per Section 6); PV of costs = AUD 1,817,741.02; PV of benefits = AUD 2,942,932.74. Equipment reference: Sungrow SG250HX 250 kW string inverter (1500 VDC), LONGi Hi-MO 5m LR5-72HBD bifacial mono-PERC modules, K2 Systems N-Rack carport/ground-mount rail. Horizon: 25 years. Evidence date: 2026-09-22. Limitation: all figures are the scenario model output for the single scenario described; this page is a planning aid, not engineering procurement.

Metric	Value
NPV (real, 6.00% WACC, 25 yr)	AUD 1,125,192
IRR	12.75%
Simple payback	7.58 yr
Discounted payback	10.31 yr
LCOE (undiscounted PV of costs / undiscounted kWh)	AUD 0.0531/kWh
PV of costs	AUD 1,817,741.02
PV of benefits	AUD 2,942,932.74
Total undiscounted cost	AUD 2,156,545.40
Total undiscounted benefit	AUD 5,925,562.34
Total lifetime generation	65,956,068 kWh
Year-1 generation / specific yield	2,800,000 kWh / 1,400 kWh/kWp
Capex (Year 0)	AUD 1,500,000
Inverter replacement reserve (Year 12 lump sum)	AUD 80,000

Reference equipment (publicly marketed; datasheets/publication pages linked):

All torque, earthing, MPPT voltage window, maximum DC input, and structural spacing limits applied at engineering procurement are read against the specific OEM manual revision cited at the RFQ stage; no limit values are asserted on this page.

1. Scope and boundary

This use-case models a 2,000 kWp (2 MWp) DC parking-lot solar carport in Australia, fixed-tilt, 1500 VDC architecture, central string inverters, grid-connected under a state DNSP connection agreement, with EV-charger-ready conduit (charger hardware excluded from capex). Horizon 25 years. Currency AUD. Energy: 2,800,000 kWh in Year-1, declining 0.5%/yr against module degradation. Year-1 benefit = AUD 210,000 (2,800,000 kWh × AUD 0.075/kWh blended export). The scenario TCO outputs above are the only financial figures on this page; the narrative in Sections 3–7 is consistent with those outputs.

2. Inputs (cited)

3. Capex (model input — total ties to the scenario TCO)

4. Opex

Input	Value	Unit	Source document / URL
Total capex (DC plant, 2 MWp, parking carport)	1,500,000	AUD	Scenario model output. Build-up in Section 3 (line items sum to AUD 1,500,000; consistent with ARENA 2023 Solar Cost Benchmark range and IEA PVPS Trends in PV Applications 2024 ground-mount PR band).
Year-1 O&M (operations, insurance, panel clean, SCADA)	18,000	AUD/yr	Scenario model output (1.2% of capex; UK DESNZ Solar PV Cost Data C&I O&M band, 1.0–1.5% of capex/yr).
Inverter replacement reserve (Year 12 lump sum)	80,000	AUD	Scenario model output (5.3% of capex; consistent with Fraunhofer ISE Photovoltaics Report inverter-replacement reserve range for 1500 VDC C&I string inverters).
Year-1 generation (Sydney-band, fixed-tilt carport)	2,800,000	kWh	Scenario model output (specific yield 1,400 kWh/kWp/yr). Cross-checked against EU PVGIS PVGIS tool (SARAH2) for Sydney 33.87°S, 151.21°E and APVI Australian Solar Map.
Module degradation (linear)	0.5	%/yr	Conservative field rate; IEC 61215-1:2021 / IEC 61215-2:2021 (ed. 2.0), catalogue entry on IEC Webstore.
Blended export tariff (Year-1)	0.075	AUD/kWh	Scenario model input (Year-1 benefit / Year-1 kWh = 210,000 / 2,800,000). Comparable benchmarks: Ofgem Smart Export Guarantee programme page (provider-dependent GBP ranges).
Discount rate (WACC, real)	6.00	%/yr	Model input; comparable SARB monetary-policy target band (3–6% inflation) and Bank of England Monetary Policy Report CPI context.
Project life	25	yr	Model input; standard C&I asset-life horizon per IEA PVPS Trends in PV Applications 2024.

Capex line	AUD (2 MWp)	Source document / URL
Modules (LONGi Hi-MO 5m LR5-72HBD, FOB-equivalent)	360,000	LONGi Hi-MO 5m product family: https://www.longi.com/en/products/modules/hi-mo-5m/; benchmark UK DESNZ Solar PV Cost Data.
Carport structure & foundations (K2 Systems N-Rack / S-Rack rail)	440,000	K2 Systems N-Rack: https://k2-systems.com/en/product-solutions/k2-n-rack-system/.
Inverters (Sungrow SG250HX, 1500 VDC, 8 MPPT)	100,000	Sungrow string inverter range: https://www.sungrowpower.com/en/products/string-inverter.
EPC + electrical BoS	240,000	UK DESNZ Solar PV Cost Data C&I EPC-per-kW benchmark; Fraunhofer ISE Photovoltaics Report.
Grid connection (DNSP)	120,000	World Bank Business Ready Getting-Electricity methodology; DNSP schedule confirmed at connection offer.
Developer margin / financing	160,000	Model input (planning allowance).
EV-readiness & signage allowance	80,000	Model input (planning allowance).
Total capex	1,500,000	Ties to Year-0 cost line in the computed cash flow (Section 6).

Year-1 O&M = 1.2% × AUD 1,500,000 = AUD 18,000/yr (insurance, panel cleaning, SCADA monitoring included). O&M inflates 2.0%/yr, producing AUD 18,000 (Year 1), AUD 18,360 (Year 2), AUD 18,727.20 (Year 3), … AUD 28,951.87 (Year 25). Year 12 inverter replacement reserve = AUD 80,000 lump sum; this produces the AUD 102,380.74 cost spike at Year 12 in the computed cash flow (Year-12 O&M AUD 22,380.74 + inverter reserve AUD 80,000.00, rounding to AUD 102,380.74). Benchmark for the O&M ratio: UK DESNZ Solar PV Cost Data C&I O&M band of 1.0–1.5% of capex/yr.

5. Yield and revenue

Year-1 generation = 2,800,000 kWh (consistent with 1,400 kWh/kWp/yr at 2,000 kWp, Sydney-band fixed-tilt carport). Year-n generation = Year-1 × (1 − 0.005)⁽ⁿ⁻¹⁾. Year-1 benefit at AUD 0.075/kWh = AUD 210,000. The computed cash flow shows benefits rising from AUD 210,000.00 (Year 1) to AUD 212,084.25 (Year 2) and AUD 214,189.19 (Year 3), i.e., an effective tariff escalation of ~1.0%/yr combined with the kWh decline (per Section 7 model assumption). Cross-check on Year-1 generation: EU PVGIS PVGIS SARAH2 and APVI Australian Solar Map yield reference.

6. TCO and cash flow (scenario model output — reproduced verbatim)

The two tables below are reproduced verbatim from the scenario TCO model. All NPV, IRR, payback and LCOE figures in this page are read from the summary table; no methodology, derivation, or worked formula is reproduced.

TCO summary
Metric	Value
Currency	AUD
Horizon (years)	25
Discount rate	6.00 %
Total undiscounted cost (AUD)	2,156,545.40
Total discounted cost / PV of costs (AUD)	1,817,741.02
Total undiscounted benefit (AUD)	5,925,562.34
Total discounted benefit (AUD)	2,942,932.74
NPV (AUD)	1,125,191.72
IRR	0.1275
Simple payback (year)	7.58
Discounted payback (year)	10.31
LCOE (AUD/kWh)	0.0531

Year-by-year cash flow
Year	Cost (AUD)	Benefit (AUD)	Net (AUD)	Discount factor	Discounted net (AUD)	Energy (kWh)
0	1,500,000.00	0.0000	-1,500,000.00	1.00	-1,500,000.00	0.0000
1	18,000.00	210,000.00	192,000.00	0.9434	181,132.08	2,800,000.00
2	18,360.00	212,084.25	193,724.25	0.8900	172,413.89	2,786,000.00
3	18,727.20	214,189.19	195,461.99	0.8396	164,113.65	2,772,070.00
4	19,101.74	216,315.01	197,213.27	0.7921	156,211.38	2,758,209.65
5	19,483.78	218,461.94	198,978.16	0.7473	148,688.06	2,744,418.60
6	19,873.45	220,630.18	200,756.72	0.7050	141,525.57	2,730,696.51
7	20,270.92	222,819.93	202,549.01	0.6651	134,706.66	2,717,043.03
8	20,676.34	225,031.42	204,355.08	0.6274	128,214.90	2,703,457.81
9	21,089.87	227,264.85	206,174.99	0.5919	122,034.66	2,689,940.52
10	21,511.67	229,520.46	208,008.79	0.5584	116,151.02	2,676,490.82
11	21,941.90	231,798.45	209,856.55	0.5268	110,549.81	2,663,108.37
12	102,380.74	234,099.05	131,718.31	0.4970	65,459.96	2,649,792.82
13	22,828.35	236,422.48	213,594.13	0.4688	100,141.26	2,636,543.86
14	23,284.92	238,768.97	215,484.05	0.4423	95,308.81	2,623,361.14
15	23,750.62	241,138.76	217,388.14	0.4173	90,708.47	2,610,244.33
16	24,225.63	243,532.06	219,306.43	0.3936	86,329.16	2,597,193.11
17	24,710.14	245,949.11	221,238.97	0.3714	82,160.28	2,584,207.15
18	25,204.35	248,390.16	223,185.81	0.3503	78,191.76	2,571,286.11
19	25,708.43	250,855.43	225,147.00	0.3305	74,414.01	2,558,429.68
20	26,222.60	253,345.17	227,122.57	0.3118	70,817.89	2,545,637.53
21	26,747.05	255,859.62	229,112.57	0.2942	67,394.70	2,532,909.34
22	27,281.99	258,399.03	231,117.03	0.2775	64,136.16	2,520,244.80
23	27,827.63	260,963.64	233,136.01	0.2618	61,034.37	2,507,643.57
24	28,384.19	263,553.70	235,169.52	0.2470	58,081.83	2,495,105.36
25	28,951.87	266,169.47	237,217.60	0.2330	55,271.38	2,482,629.83

Time-basis note on LCOE. The published LCOE of AUD 0.0531/kWh uses undiscounted PV of costs (AUD 2,156,545.40) divided by undiscounted lifetime kWh (65,956,068 kWh), placing costs and benefits on the same undiscounted time basis. NPV and payback figures remain on the discounted basis shown in the summary table.

7. Model assumptions (explicit bounded defaults)

residual_value.amount = AUD 0 (zero salvage assumed; bounded assumption).
residual_value.year = 25 (terminal year, end of horizon; bounded assumption).
asset.pv.tariff_escalation_pct = 1.0%/yr effective (bounded assumption; reconciles Year-1 benefit AUD 210,000.00 → Year-3 benefit AUD 214,189.19 against the 0.5%/yr module degradation in Section 2; not a sourced fact).
asset.pv.self_consumption_pct = 0% (all generation exported to the PPA / DNSP; bounded assumption).
asset.pv.export_tariff_per_kwh = AUD 0.075/kWh Year-1, escalating per tariff_escalation_pct above (bounded assumption; reconciles to Year-1 benefit of AUD 210,000 at 2,800,000 kWh).
O&M escalation = 2.0%/yr (bounded assumption; consistent with UK DESNZ Solar PV Cost Data C&I O&M inflation band).

These are model assumptions; they are not sourced facts. The scenario TCO outputs above were computed against these bounds.

8. Standards checklist (planning reference)

IEC 61215-1:2021 / IEC 61215-2:2021 — Crystalline silicon PV modules — Design qualification and type approval (edition 2.0), International Electrotechnical Commission, published 2021. Catalogue entry: IEC Webstore (full designation IEC 61215:2021 with parts 1 and 2 cited in text).
UL 61730-1 — Photovoltaic (PV) Module Safety Qualification — Part 1, Underwriters Laboratories (current revision). Standard page: UL 61730-1 standard page.
UL 1973 — Batteries for Use in Stationary and Motive Auxiliary Power Applications, Underwriters Laboratories (current revision). Standard page: UL 1973 standard page (cited as relevant for any future BESS add-on; not in current capex).
IEC 61851-1:2017 — Electric vehicle conductive charging system — Part 1: General requirements, International Electrotechnical Commission, edition 3.0, 2017. Standard page: IEC 61851-1:2017 (cited for EV-charger-ready conduit only; charger hardware out of capex).
IEC 61851-23:2014/AMD1:2023 — Electric vehicle conductive charging system — Part 23: DC electric vehicle charging station, International Electrotechnical Commission. Catalogue query: IEC Webstore query for IEC 61851-23 (cited for EV-charger-ready conduit only; charger hardware out of capex).
IEC 62196-3 — Plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and vehicle inlets — Conductive charging of electric vehicles — Part 3: Dimensional compatibility and interchangeability requirements for DC and AC/DC pin and contact-tube vehicle couplers, International Electrotechnical Commission (current revision). Catalogue query: IEC Webstore query for IEC 62196-3.
AS/NZS 5033:2021 — Installation and safety requirements for photovoltaic (PV) arrays, Standards Australia / Standards New Zealand, edition 2.0, published 2021-09-17 (cite full designation; catalogue record via Standards Australia / Standards New Zealand).
AS/NZS 1170.2:2021 — Structural design actions, Part 2: Wind actions, Standards Australia / Standards New Zealand, edition 2021 (cite full designation; catalogue record via SAI Global).
AS/NZS 4777.2:2020 — Grid connection of energy systems via inverters, Part 2: Inverter requirements, Standards Australia / Standards New Zealand, edition 2020 (cite full designation; catalogue record via SAI Global).
IEC 62109-1:2010 / IEC 62109-2:2011 — Safety of power converters for use in photovoltaic power systems — Part 1: General requirements; Part 2: Particular requirements for inverters, International Electrotechnical Commission. Catalogue entry: IEC Webstore.
BSI PAS 1898:2022 — Electric vehicles — Accessibility and usability of EV charging infrastructure, British Standards Institution, edition 1.0, 2022. Standard page: BSI PAS 1898:2022.
DNSP technical requirements — state-specific (Ausgrid NS194, Energex B2B, CitiPower connection agreement, Endeavour, Essential, SAPN, TasNetworks) — connection-offer documentation; confirm the named document and revision at connection application.
AS 3600:2018 — Concrete structures, Standards Australia, edition 2018 (cite full designation; catalogue record via SAI Global).
AS 4100:2020 — Steel structures, Standards Australia, edition 2020 (cite full designation; catalogue record via SAI Global).

Planning reference list. Final compliance requires an accredited CEC designer (AU) and a registered DNSP connection offer. Specific module, inverter and rail-kit manuals (LONGi Hi-MO 5m installation manual revision, Sungrow SG250HX Installation Guide revision, K2 Systems N-Rack installation guide revision) are read against the RFQ-stage documentation.

9. HS code block (indicative; duty rates require official lookup)

Item	HS code (indicative)	Description	Duty rate	Lookup source
Crystalline PV modules (mono, e.g., LONGi Hi-MO 5m)	8541.43.00	Photovoltaic cells assembled in modules	VERIFY via ABF Working Tariff + FTA preference (e.g., NZ-China FTA)	ABF Working Tariff; NZ Customs WTD; USITC HTS; WCO HS 2022
Static converters / inverters (e.g., Sungrow SG250HX)	8504.40.00	Static converters (PV inverters)	VERIFY via ABF	ABF Working Tariff
Mounting structure (steel/aluminium, e.g., K2 Systems rail)	7308.90.00 / 7610.90.00	Structures and parts, iron/steel or aluminium	VERIFY via ABF	ABF Working Tariff
DC cables & connectors	8544.42.00 / 8536.69.00	Electric conductors / plugs and sockets	VERIFY via ABF	ABF Working Tariff
Monitoring & SCADA	9032.89.00	Automatic regulating or controlling instruments	VERIFY via ABF	ABF Working Tariff
EV charger hardware (future add-on, currently out of capex)	8537.10.90 / 8504.40.00	Boards/panels for electric control; static converters	VERIFY via ABF	ABF Working Tariff

Lookup instructions: Use the Australian Border Force working tariff tool via the ABF home page (https://www.abf.gov.au/) with the 8/10-digit subheading above; then check the applicable FTA portal (e.g., NZ-China FTA, Canada CUSMA) for preferential origin if claiming a free rate under a free trade agreement. Cross-reference tool: EU TARIC consultation. GST (10%) applies to the customs value plus duty, regardless of duty outcome. Incoterms basis for the procurement: ICC Incoterms 2020. Lithium-ion freight (where relevant for any future BESS add-on) must comply with the UN Manual of Tests and Criteria, ST/SG/AC.10/11/Rev.7 (UN 38.3) — UN Manual of Tests and Criteria; air freight under IATA DGR.

Disclaimer: HS codes above are indicative for planning only. Final classification and duty rate must be confirmed by a licensed customs broker or via an official ABF ruling before any shipment.

10. Call to action

Request a quote for a 2 MWp AU parking carport kit, or send your engineering datasheet for technical review. For procurement teams who want to stress-test the cash flow against their own capex, O&M and yield inputs, a printable TCO brief with the computed tables is available below.

2 MWp Parking-Lot Solar Carport — Use-Case and Total Cost of Ownership (Australia)